In November 2009, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia agreed to establish a customs union with harmonized import tariffs. The new common tariff became effective on 1 January 2010, and internal border controls have been subsequently removed. The common external customs tariff (CET) is mainly based on the Russian duties prevailing at the time. However, its introduction resulted in changes to the import tariff structure in each country, predominantly upwards, although a large number of tariffs were also adjusted downwards, in particular in Russia. Kazakhstan's schedule underwent the most significant changes, which affected more than half of the tariff lines. Since Russia's earlier tariffs were the highest among the three countries, there have been significant duty hikes on a number of sensitive products in Belarus and Kazakhstan. Further integration within the framework of the Common Economic Space is foreseen, with the ultimate goal of achieving free movement of goods, capital and labor. New members, notably the Kyrgyz Republic, have been invited to join. At the same time, as the common tariff was worked out in the crisis environment of 2009, it was also used in part to promote import substitution in certain areas through increases in tariffs. For example, industrial policy motivation for changes in tariffs was pronounced in the automotive sector. Since the launch of the customs union, trade between the three countries has been growing rapidly. Since 2009, overall trade among the three countries increased by over a quarter by the end of 2010, and by two-thirds by the end of 2011. Trade turnover with the partners in the customs union has increased for each country as well. For instance, Kazakhstan's turnover (export plus import) with Russia and Belarus has grown by almost 80 per cent between 2009 and 2011. Most of this increase, however, reflected post-crisis recovery trends (trade turnover was only 12 per cent higher in 2011 than in 2008).